Ruvimbo Hazel Shayamunda and Dr Johannes Bhanye
Africa has long been a continent of great promise and potential, with aspirations for democratic governance, constitutionalism, and the protection of human rights. However, these aspirations have been under threat in recent years, and the continent has witnessed a worrying surge in military coups and the rise of military regimes.
A military coup, short for “coup d'état,” is a sudden and often violent seizure of political power by the military or a faction within the military.
It typically involves the overthrow of the existing government or leadership, frequently including the president or head of state. A military regime emerges following a military coup, and this becomes a form of government where the military, led by a group of senior officers, assumes direct control over the country’s administration. In a military regime, the military exercises executive, legislative, and sometimes judicial powers. Out of the 486 attempted or successful military coups carried globally since 1950, Africa accounts for the largest number, with 214, of which at least 106 have been successful. This alarming trend in the rise of military regimes in Africa poses a significant challenge to the future of democratic governance for the continent. In this blog, we explore the rise of military regimes in Africa, focusing on the historical context, causes, consequences, and potential solutions to the rise of military regimes on the continent.
Historical context of military regimes in Africa
To understand the current situation regarding military regimes in Africa, it is crucial to investigate the historical context. The continent has a complex history of post-colonial struggles for power, and military intervention in politics has been a recurring theme. Many African nations gained independence from colonial rule only to find themselves grappling with internal power struggles that often led to military takeovers. For instance, Ghana, one of the first African countries to gain independence in 1957, experienced multiple military coups in the following decades. The first was in 1966 when Kwame Nkrumah was removed from power, and in the following year, there was an unsuccessful attempt by junior army officers. These events set a precedent for military intervention in politics in other African countries, demonstrating how a legacy of instability can persist. As aptly articulated by Peter Mwai, “The 2023 takeover in Gabon is the latest in a string of coups that have taken place in recent years and comes just a month after soldiers took control in Niger. There were two in Burkina Faso in 2022 and failed coup attempts in Guinea Bissau, The Gambia and the island nation of Sao Tome and Principe. In 2021, there were six coup attempts in Africa, four of them successful. In 2017, in Zimbabwe, a military takeover brought Robert Mugabe’s 37-year rule to an end.” The list goes on and on. Sudan holds the record for the highest number of coups and attempted takeovers, totalling 18, out of which six were successful. In West Africa, Ruth Maclean recorded that Burkina Faso has witnessed the most successful coups, with nine takeovers and one failed attempt.
Causes and triggers of military coups in Africa
The causes of military coups in Africa are diverse and complex. Political instability, driven by factors such as contested elections, weak institutions, and corruption, often creates fertile ground for military intervention. Economic challenges, including high unemployment rates and income inequality, can fuel discontent and motivate the military to seize power. Ethnic and religious tensions also play a role, as rival factions within a country may look to the military as a means to protect their interests. Military leaders may sometimes be motivated by a desire for personal gain or power, leading them to orchestrate coups. Triggers for military coups can vary widely, from disputed elections and mass protests to internal power struggles within the military. These triggers are context-dependent, but they often culminate in a swift and forceful takeover.
Consequences of military coups
The consequences of military coups for African nations are far-reaching and often profoundly damaging. Military regimes tend to suppress civil liberties and political dissent, erode the rule of law, and undermine constitutionalism. Human rights abuses frequently escalate under military rule, with opposition leaders, activists, and journalists often becoming targets. Case studies from countries like Sudan and Mali highlight the devastating impacts of military coups on democratic governance. In Sudan, a coup in 2019 ousted long-time President Omar al-Bashir, leading to ongoing instability, economic crisis, and human rights abuses. Mali, a nation that has experienced multiple coups in recent years, also faces significant challenges in restoring democratic governance and stability. An often overlooked yet significant factor that contributes to coups in several African countries is the “presidents for life” phenomenon. This phenomenon is pervasive when a president alters the constitution to extend, remove, or otherwise modify term limits, or when they interpret the constitution to secure an extended tenure in power. A recent article by Good Governance Africa revealed that, presidential term limits debates and attacks are evident in a number of African countries, among them, Rwanda, Comoros, Central African Republic, Uganda, Burkina Faso, Senegal, Camerron, Congo, Malawi, Zimbabwe. The evasion of term limits has broader consequences for democratic governance in Africa to the extreme of triggering military coups.
International and regional responses to military coups
The international community has not been passive in the face of military coups in Africa. Sanctions, diplomatic pressure, and peacekeeping missions have been deployed to varying degrees in response to coup-related crises. However, the effectiveness of these measures is limited, as some military regimes manage to retain power despite international condemnation. Regional organizations like the African Union (AU) have also played a role in responding to military coups. The AU has established mechanisms to address unconstitutional government changes and has suspended member states in response to coups. The African Union Reflection Forum on Unconstitutional Changes of Government in Africa held from 15 to 17 March 2022, in Accra, Ghana adopted the Accra Declaration on Unconstitutional Changes of Government in Africa, which proposed actions to be taken by the AU, Regional Economic Communities and Member states to comprehensively address unconstitutional changes of government on the continent. However, the effectiveness of regional responses often depends on the unity and commitment of member states.
Challenges to restoring democracy in Africa
Transitioning from military rule back to democracy is a complex and delicate process. The legacy of a coup can leave deep scars, making it challenging to rebuild trust in democratic institutions. Restoring constitutionalism and human rights can be an arduous task, as military regimes often dismantle or weaken these safeguards during their rule. Furthermore, there is often a risk of coups becoming a recurring feature of a nation’s political landscape, perpetuating a cycle of instability and insecurity.
Democracy through ballots, not bullets
Preventing military coups in Africa requires a multi-pronged approach. Strengthening democratic institutions, improving governance, and addressing economic inequalities are crucial steps. Additionally, regional organizations must continue to develop and enforce mechanisms to deter and respond to coup attempts effectively. Civil society, the media, and education can also play pivotal roles in promoting democracy and holding governments accountable. By fostering a culture of democratic values and civic engagement, these actors can help build resilience against the threat of military coups and regimes in Africa.
The rise of military regimes in Africa is a concerning trend that threatens the progress made toward democracy, constitutionalism, and human rights on the continent. Understanding the historical context, causes, consequences, and potential solutions is essential in addressing this challenge. While there are no easy answers, concerted efforts from African nations, the international community, and civil society are necessary to safeguard the future of democratic governance in Africa. The continent’s people deserve the opportunity to choose their leaders through ‘ballots, not bullets.’
Ruvimbo Hazel Shayamunda is a Conflict Peace and Governance Expert at the University of Zimbabwe, Department of Peace, Security and Society, Zimbabwe:
Johannes Itai Bhanye is an Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Scholar and Post-Doctoral Research Fellow at the University of the Free State, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Republic of South Africa. Email Address:
Cite as: R.H.Shayamunda and J. Bhanye (2023) From Ballots to Bullets: Exploring the Rise of Military Regimes in Africa: Available at: (Accessed: [date] [month] [year])